Jonathan Glen Merritt

Dr Jonathan Glen Merritt

Job: Senior Lecturer in Law

Faculty: Business and Law

School/department: Leicester De Montfort Law School

Address: The Gateway, 七彩直播, Leicester, UK, LE1 9BH

T: +44 (0)116 2078171

E: jmerritt@dmu.ac.uk

W: /bal

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Personal profile

Jonathan Merritt has a PhD from 七彩直播, a first degree in law from Nottingham Trent University (NTU), a Post Graduate Certificate in Education from NTU, a Masters Degree in Criminology and Social Policy from the Open University and over 22 years experience teaching law and criminology.

He joined Leicester De Montfort School of Law full time in 2006 although he has taught on 七彩直播 programmes since 2004.

Having taught and published initially in the business law field, Jonathan then researched for several years into policing issues.

Subsequent to that, a keen equestrian himself, Jonathan achieved his PhD in 2017 which concentrated on regulating equestrianism and horse racing. During this research and afterwards, Jonathan has widely disseminated his research into equine focused sports law in journals and at academic conferences.

Publications and outputs

dc.title: 鈥楬orses for 七彩直播鈥�: An analysis of equine sports regulation and disciplinary procedures regarding the non-human athlete dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan G. dc.description.abstract: Sports governing bodies and international sports federations are very powerful organisations within their sphere. The governance of these sports has created a hegemony which does not necessarily serve the interests of those engaged in sport (the 鈥榬uled鈥�), but instead those who 鈥榬ule鈥� sport. A key part of governance is the disciplinary mechanism and the control of cheating within the promotion of integrity. The central tenet of such governance is the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Code, and separate rules within the same aim is the concept of strict liability, modified to 鈥榩resumed fault鈥� and is predicated on the concept of human autonomy. The elite sport horse is now socially constructed as a non-human 鈥榓thlete鈥�, as it is no longer a bulk source of power for industry, agriculture, or warfare. However, the contribution that the horse industry makes to the UK leisure economy is considerable at 拢7bn annually, before associated gambling is even considered. Worldwide, there are more than 80 sports involving horses as participants but the current hegemony regarding the maintaining of integrity is not working. Sports involving horses are unique in that they involve teams of human and non-human athletes. This thesis considers equine-based sport globally, but concentrates on the Olympic equestrian sports and horse racing as examples to demonstrate the inequities and inadequacies in the governance and disciplinary status quo, with respect to those non-human athletes, which impacts on the associated human. This is not an animal rights treatise, although animal welfare considerations do play a part in the discourse. Rather, this research takes a Gramscian perspective to examine the problem and define whether the problem is systemic and, further, if it is, why it has remained without radical alteration. Ultimately, a new hegemony is proposed in dealing with cases of cheating with much greater integration of, and reciprocity between, the various equine sports governance structures.
dc.title: A Socio-Legal Critique of Sports Regulation dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan G. dc.description.abstract: This book has one purpose, examine the contention that modern sport, because of the way it is regulated, has little or no connection with notions of fair play and sportsmanship. Other than isolated examples of 鈥榞entlemanly鈥� conduct on the field of play, sport has become a series of pastimes that seem regulated almost wholly in the interests of groups of people other than the participants themselves. This is not a sociological treatise, although such themes are part of the development of law. To consider the extent to which sports regulation serves the athlete or player rather than the ruling class of sport, the medium is an analysis of the way the law is applied to sport. This includes a discussion of how sports rules operate as law, why sports organizations are structured in the way that they are and whether national and international law is applied to sport in the same way that it is to citizens and corporate bodies outside sport. Predominantly English law is studied, not least because the self-regulation model dominant in that jurisdiction is so widespread around the world. Given that sport is now global, influences from other jurisdictions, such as the US, Canada, Australia, and the European Union are considered as well. There also legal and political themes which arise from Russia, China, South Africa, Saudia Arabia and Qatar for instance. In order to achieve the aim of a deep analysis of sport, the law and fairness, it is imperative to fully consider the context in which the law is formed. Law develops from politics and that in itself is a product of the societies that are governed. Such as sociological and religious factors, together with traditional notions and conventions must be understood before the law can be usefully examined. Put another way, the law seeks to address the problems that sport has, but these are rarely unique to sport. There are issues with racism and sexism for instance, however those arise because the same contributory factors are being grappled with by society generally. Understanding the changes in social and economic attitudes across the populace and how they have impacted on the development of the law, helps to analyze the way the law operates in sport. Further, how law is used, misused or ignored to the detriment of participants and fans. The subtitle is drawn from a passage written by George Orwell and his work is quoted elsewhere in the book. The words of Karl Marx and Antonio Gramsci also feature heavily. This is not, however, a Marxist critique of law, nor does it seek to raise Marxism up as a solution to any of the problems of the world, or sport. For one thing, communism has one fatal flaw, in order to survive it must be overseen by an autocratic regime. Without the checks and balances that modern democracy, for all its faults, provides, despotism is nearly always the result in a Marxist regime. Having said that, free market capitalism should be put under close scrutiny as well. Sport is a nowadays a business, but sport business is unique in one key regard, it does not operate to eradicate competition. Tesco and Walmart would celebrate if competing supermarket chains went out of business. Nissan would be glad to see Honda go to the wall, as eradicating commercial competition means a greater market share for those left in the marketplace. However, Manchester United FC needs its competitors to survive. Other soccer premiership sides such as Arsenal and Liverpool must be credible adversaries for the tournament to have any meaning or be good entertainment. The same is true of teams of the NFL in the US and so on. Nevertheless, as a business, sport operates within the almost total dominance of global capitalism. Apart from the aberration around competition norms just described, sport is very much part of the free market and the patterns and values of the capitalist hegemony apply. Capitalism, which is largely unbridled creates disturbing inequalities which plague almost all modern societies. These hierarchies are replicated in sport which has its own versions of the 鈥榬uled鈥� and the 鈥榬ulers鈥�. Understanding the power dynamics at play in society is necessary to fully understand whether sports鈥� structures and process aggravate or mitigate unfairness. Ultimately though, Marxist ideas have corroded capitalism and produced some very good outcomes. These are such as employment rights, notions of social equality and mobility and holding power to account. However, as Gramsci also said, the 鈥樷€uling class... reabsorbs the control that was slipping from its grasp. Perhaps it may make sacrifices鈥ut it retains power鈥�, so it is with sport. Sport is not insulated from the structural changes society has undergone in the last century or so, nor is it immune from the attempts the ruling class have made to shore up their own position. In short, this book seeks to highlight what is going on in society, how the law is both succeeding and failing to protect people鈥檚 health, wellbeing and happiness in an equitable way and then applies that discussion to sport. In many respects, this research builds on the author鈥檚 other work in the area. 鈥楻egulating Sport for the Non-Human Athlete鈥�. Some of the themes appear in both tracts. The first book had a much narrower focus, that is, sport involving equines. In carrying out that study there were, however many instances where it was evident that the issues covered had implications for human sport as well, hence the impetus for writing this monograph.
dc.title: 'Show me your horse and I will tell you who you are': Brexit, a chance to acknowledge animal sentience in law. dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan; Horton, Jessica dc.description.abstract: The 鈥楪reat Repeal Bill鈥� was designed to bring all existing European Union (EU) law into UK law at the point of the country鈥檚 departure from the EU on 29th March 2019. At this time a so called 鈥楬ard Brexit鈥�, with no agreement and a reversion to World Trade Organisation (WTO) trade tariffs is still possible. The Government White Paper on the future relationship with the EU of July 2018 seems however, to outline a softer Brexit or even a 鈥楤RINO鈥� (Brexit in Name Only) much to the disgust of arch-Brexiteers. One of the unprecedented number of amendments to the Bill in Parliament produced a media and social media storm on its own. This was the consideration of the concept of 鈥榓nimal sentience鈥� as it exists in EU law. Commentators were concerned that the vote against alignment with this was a signal that the UK Parliament was not prepared to recognise the concept at all after March 2019. Ministerial Guidance was issued within days which attempted to refute his position. Michael Gove, Environment Secretary and prominent Euro-sceptic appeared on national radio to emphasise the Government鈥檚 commitment to animal welfare and to urge the people to trust the domestic democratic process to surpass the standards that the EU has mandated in this sector. This paper sets out to consider whether this trust is warranted, specifically in the context of domesticated horses in the UK. It explores the current position and compares it to other jurisdictions, most notably the US, Canada and New Zealand. This is to analyse how willing the UK legislature has been to acknowledge animal sentience to date, as an indicator of future performance outside the constraints of EU law. The reason for narrowing the focus to equines is that we have a 鈥榮pecial relationship鈥� with the species which has been the result of a process spanning thousands of years. This connection has shifted from one that provided more or less mutual benefits into one of absolute dependence on humankind. That said, the 21st century has seen the domestic horse take on a new and by no means less significant role within our modern lives. This is not because they continue to be used as beasts of burden, but instead have entered the realms of becoming almost quasi human, through our own changing social constructs. Cultural and societal influences through such mediums as the entertainment industry, commerce, advancements in technology and the media have placed the domestic horse well and truly at the heart of our society. Legal protection for any domesticated reached a pinnacle in 2006 with the Animal Welfare Act. This paper argues that the recognition of animals as sentient beings by both the scientific and legal worlds means that their level of legal protection should be reflected within our current law. This paper takes issue with the construction of legislation such as the Animal Welfare Act and argues that there have been missed opportunities to protect horses with rights that are more in tune with the modern social construction of horses. The paper concludes with a view, based on previous progress, as to whether the UK legislature can indeed be trusted to properly recognise animal sentience post 鈥楤rexit鈥�.
dc.title: Regulating sport for the non-human athlete: horses for courses dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan
dc.title: Attack of the Clones: Problematising Equine Sports Integrity Regulation On the Ascendancy of the Genetically Copied Athlete dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan dc.description.abstract: Cloned horses are already here and competing; this article considers in turn, both the challenges and the unprecedented opportunities for the development of human athlete regulation that the current participation of cloned equines in elite sport presents. The arrival of the cloned human athlete has hitherto been considered as a future 鈥榮pectre鈥� beset with potential sports ethics dilemmas. This paper argues however, that the Kuhnian state of crisis that sports integrity will be thrown into by the advent of the human clone will bring about a paradigm shift of epic proportions. There is however, the opportunity to learn from the regulatory mistakes of the past and shape the guidelines for human clones by regulating their equine counterparts effectively now. The current hegemony is that integrity regulation for one species, man, can be applied to another, horses, with little substantive amendment and be effective. The first sport of any kind to incorporate anti-doping measures into its rules was thoroughbred racing. In the early 1900s racehorses were subject to dope tests because of fears that they were being given cocaine. Human athlete sports followed suit and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Code is the ultimate development of that thinking. Examples cited are the F茅d茅ration 脡questre Internationale (FEI) regulations and to a different degree the British Horseracing Authority (BHA) rules developed independently from WADA. None of this has resulted in a satisfactory situation as this paper will demonstrate. The better results are achieved by careful species-specific drafting well in advance of technological change, not struggling to keep up with innovation. This article is part of a Special Edition of CIL incorporating selected papers from Buckingham University and 七彩直播's 'Horses in Culture, Society and the Law' Conference Series inaugural event at 七彩直播 in April 2017. The Special Edition is edited by Dr Jonathan Merritt of 七彩直播 and Dr Sarah Sargent of Buckingham University. dc.description: The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version
dc.title: 鈥楬orses for 七彩直播鈥�: An analysis of equine sports regulation and disciplinary procedures regarding the non-human athlete dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan dc.description.abstract: Sports governing bodies and international sports federations are very powerful organisations within their sphere. The governance of these sports has created a hegemony which does not necessarily serve the interests of those engaged in sport (the 鈥榬uled鈥�), but instead those who 鈥榬ule鈥� sport. A key part of governance is the disciplinary mechanism and the control of cheating within the promotion of integrity. The central tenet of such governance is the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Code, and separate rules within the same aim is the concept of strict liability, modified to 鈥榩resumed fault鈥� and is predicated on the concept of human autonomy. The elite sport horse is now socially constructed as a non-human 鈥榓thlete鈥�, as it is no longer a bulk source of power for industry, agriculture, or warfare. However, the contribution that the horse industry makes to the UK leisure economy is considerable at 拢7bn annually, before associated gambling is even considered. Worldwide, there are more than 80 sports involving horses as participants but the current hegemony regarding the maintaining of integrity is not working. Sports involving horses are unique in that they involve teams of human and non-human athletes. This thesis considers equine-based sport globally, but concentrates on the Olympic equestrian sports and horse racing as examples to demonstrate the inequities and inadequacies in the governance and disciplinary status quo, with respect to those non-human athletes, which impacts on the associated human. This is not an animal rights treatise, although animal welfare considerations do play a part in the discourse. Rather, this research takes a Gramscian perspective to examine the problem and define whether the problem is systemic and, further, if it is, why it has remained without radical alteration. Ultimately, a new hegemony is proposed in dealing with cases of cheating with much greater integration of, and reciprocity between, the various equine sports governance structures.
dc.title: 'Don't Look a Gift Horse in the Mouth: What equestriansim can learn from thoroughbred racing' dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan dc.description.abstract: This article questions the current hegemony regarding the drafting of integrity measures such as anti -doping in modern equine based sport. The examples of the Olympic equestrian sports and British Horse Racing Authority (BHA) regulated racing are used to illustrate the current flaws and the level of crisis facing integrity in horse sport. The regulations concerned differ in form but they contain common ground such as a fondness for strict liability and reverse burdens of proof. It is evident that these concepts, particularly strict liability, are drawn from common law traditions as continental legal systems on the whole have only fault based liability. It is also true to say that these concepts have been applied in regulations based on the WADA Code, such as the FEI鈥檚 EADCMRs and others with a similar function such as the Orders and Rules of Racing without much proper thought as to their suitability. The received truth appears to be that it is perfectly reasonable to apply a sanction to a human rider because there has been a doping infraction in the horse. This is because the horse is viewed as a piece of equipment that has been tampered with rather like a ski or a badminton racket. This view of the horse is challenged in this article as the horse has to be re-imagined in the context of post-modern human society. First of all, using evidence from literary, industrial art and military history, arts sport and culture in the modern day this article shows that the elite sport horse is now socially constructed as an 鈥榓thlete-celebrity鈥�. It is therefore unconscionable that strict liability and reverse burdens should be applied in equine cases because the infraction happens in the body of a non-autonomous non-human athlete but the sanction is applied to the mind of an athlete of a different species altogether. A case study is presented of an CAS award just before the 2012 London Games in order to demonstrate the inequities present in horse sport regulation like no other. It is further evident that SGBs can no longer rest easy in the knowledge that they cannot be challenged on procedural grounds as they are not public bodies for the purposes of Judicial Review and human rights actions. There has been a leaching of human rights, natural justice and Judicial Review concepts into private law actions which can be identified in current case law. It is therefore now possible to foresee the decisions of SGBs being judicially reviewed through private law claims. There is however an alternative way of drafting regulations which British Thoroughbred racing has been presented with during a major review. It was suggested that new Orders and Rules of Racing could be drafted according to a number of underpinning principles. The rules themselves should not be too detailed in order to allow them to be applied as flexibly as possible. This represents a real departure from the traditional methods of drafting integrity regulations which have mostly relied on literal interpretation. This article proposes this new method of drafting, coupled with purposive interpretation by tribunals, is the alternative hegemony horse sport desperately needs. dc.description: The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link.
dc.title: Horses for 七彩直播: A Socio-Legal Discourse on Non-Human Athletes and Doping Regulation dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan dc.description.abstract: This paper is concerned with doping and controlled medication irregularities in equestrianism and horse racing. No derivative of the WADA Code, with its preoccupation with strict liability and reverse burdens of proof, is fit for purpose for equines. As groundwork for that debate this paper specifically seeks to counter the received truth that the horse is merely the subject of a minority interest pastime, nostalgia and/or an anachronism. The construct of the horse has shifted dramatically but the economic and social importance has not diminished. The horse is no longer constructed as a beast of burden, weapon of war, implement of industry and agriculture but as an athlete-celebrity. As such the horse still contributes with comparable importance to the economy and to society as a cultural icon. The relationship between Equus Ferus Caballus and Homo Sapiens is unique, special and enduring and has merely reached a new phase requiring specific, tailored research and debate on doping and controlled medication of these non-human sports participants to avoid miscarriages of justice. This paper refutes the commonly held view that the horse is at best a quaint reminder of our past, exploring uses that the horse is now put to in education, therapy and of course sport and recreation. Although it is true to say that the horse has significantly diminished as a source of physical power this is too crude a measure of the importance of the horse to society. Instead the status of the horse as athlete-celebrity can be established by reference to the fact that it remains a dominant cultural feature by its representation in art, literature, film and television. In tandem with this sporting prowess can bring a horse celebrity status. Taken as a totality these factors better measure the contribution the horse makes to 21st Century life.
dc.title: Horses socially constructed as 鈥榥on-human athletes鈥�: Consequences for anti-doping and other sports regulatory matters dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan dc.description.abstract: This paper discusses socio-legal research which was carried out as part of a doctoral thesis nearing completion entitled 鈥楬orses for 七彩直播鈥�: An analysis of equine sports regulation and disciplinary procedures regarding the non-human athlete鈥�. The central research question is 鈥榳hether the regulation, disciplinary procedures and rights of appeal in equine sports satisfy the requirements of 鈥榙ue process鈥�, 鈥榟uman rights鈥� and 鈥榥atural justice鈥�. This work inter alia required a re-examination of the social construction of the horse in sports and with regard to popular culture. It is this aspect of the research that this paper concentrates on, not detailed legal arguments. Doping and prohibited medication control in sports involving horses is continuing to prove problematic. Morally innocent competitors and owners, up to and including Her Majesty the Queen of England, continue to be stripped of winnings and awards. In terms of those intending to use unlawful PEDs only 鈥榙opy dopers鈥� are being caught with the more sophisticated cheating escaping detection. Some of the reasons for these problems stem from sports regulation failing to keep up with current social constructions of the horse. The central tenets of regulation regimes like those based on the WADA Code are strict liability and reverse burdens of proof, these in turn are rooted in the concept of human autonomy and the athlete being responsible for everything that enters the body. This paper seeks to demonstrate that the sport horse is now constructed as a non-human athlete and therefore this type of regulation is not effective or suitable. The arguments explored in this paper include but are not limited to the fact that the horse is no longer a bulk source of power for industry, agriculture, or warfare but nevertheless contributes to the UK leisure economy to the tune of 拢7bn annually before the betting industry is even considered. Further, in terms of its importance as a cultural icon it is still a key feature in art, sport, advertising, media coverage and fashion. This paper goes further still and postulates that the social construct has evolved to that of athlete-celebrity and therefore sports involving horses are unique in that they involve teams of human and non-human (non-autonomous) athletes. In particular, this paper considers the Olympic equestrian sports and horse racing as examples to demonstrate how inequitable the use of Code derived regulation is. 'Repugnance' is not too strong a word to describe the resulting tribunal decisions and this paper proposes an alternative regime of sports governance for equines which embraces mainland European legal philosophy more than it does that found in Anglo-American legal systems.
dc.title: Human Rights and Horses: Problematising challenges to sports governing bodies under Article 6 鈥� Equestrianism, a case study dc.contributor.author: Merritt, Jonathan dc.description.abstract: The paper will consider the jurisprudence which seems to establish that Art. 6 has no applicability because SGBs are not public bodies. The paper re-examines the issues in the light of Dawn Oliver's work casting doubt on the importance of the public/private divide and considering the emergence of human rights themes in private law claims. Given the allegations of inept practice/corruption currently circulating in the governance of equestrian sport and the way that, for example anti-doping rules are structured in equestrianism (making them uniquely vulnerable to challenge) this paper argues for greater use of private law claims by sports participants as a way of progressing change in the governance of the sport.

Research interests/expertise

Sports Law, Criminology (Police Powers and Community Policing)

Areas of teaching

Sports Law

Criminal Justice

Criminology

Qualifications

Doctor of Philosophy - PhD

MA Criminology and Social Policy

PGCE

LLB(Hons)

七彩直播 taught

PhD Supervision

Sports Rights and Commercial Dispute Resolution (Masters Programme)

Sports Law

Criminology

Issues in Criminal Justice

Membership of professional associations and societies

Socio Legal Studies Association

Society of Legal Scholars

Forthcoming events

Conference at University of Buckingham: Horses in Culture Society and the Law - 19th September 2018, conference weblink:

For inaugural conference in this ongoing series see:

Conference at 七彩直播: Horses, Society and the Law: Past, Present and Future -11th April 2017, conference weblink http://www.dmu.ac.uk/about-dmu/schools-and-departments/leicester-de-montfort-law-school/events/horse-society-and-the-law-past-present-and-future.aspx

Consultancy work

External Income Generation:

Lead on consultative group (police/七彩直播/associate college/Skills for Justice). Tasked with designing Foundation Degree in Criminal Justice (Police Studies) from inception in 2003 to validation in 2004.

Lead on consultative group (police/七彩直播/associate college/Skills for Justice). Tasked with designing Foundation Degree in Policing from inception in 2005 to validation in 2006.

Consultancy

External Academic Consultant for Foundation Degree Police and Community Studies, Hull University/Bishop Burton College 2005 – 2010

Collaborative Provision Liaison with Castle College for Foundation Degree Criminal Justice (Police Studies) 2006 - 2011

External Academic Consultant for Foundation Degree in Policing (Nottinghamshire Police) 2006 - 2011

Academic Consultant for Foundation Degree in Policing (Leicestershire Police) 2006 – 2011

Consultant to Thoroughbred Horseracing Industry MBA (THIMBA -Liverpool University) 2016 to present

Current research students

2nd Supervisor to Mr Liam Digan, Part Time PhD student researching the WADA Code and young and/or vulnerable athletes.

Externally funded research grants information

Principal Investigator, ‘Wider police family’ research project (SLSA - £1k + Internal £1.5k), 2008- 2010

Internally funded research project information

Visiting Scholar, Osgoode Hall Law School,Toronto (£5k) 2008. In collaboration with Toronto Police Service.

Principle Investigator, Life Long Learning Research Project (£2k), 2002.

Professional esteem indicators

Reviewer for the following peer reviewed academic journals:

Denning Law Journal

Contemporary Issues In Law

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice